Origin of Odissi
The most outstanding archaeological evidence of Odissi is the Rani Gumpha of the 2nd Century B.C. in Orissa. Scholars have dated these caves earlier than the writing of the Natyashastra. From the 7th Century onwards there is a continuous history of this dance form, supported by chronicles and archaeological and literary evidence. This dance tradition was however kept alive by the Devadasis, the female servants of God. The Devadasis used to dance to the recitation of hymns and bols of talas. The dance remained an oral tradition through the beginning of the 20th century, in possession of semi-literates who were not aware of the existing Sanskrit texts on dance.

Theme of Odissi
Odissi derives its theme from Geeta Govinda mostly. It is generally believed that the composers fixed the tala and raga of each song as in those of Geeta Govinda. Mostly these romantic compositions are set in a slow rhythm which enables the dancer to fully depict the emotion by gestures and softer movements to bring about the full meaning of the compositions. Odissi`s dependence on Geeta Govinda has enhanced its popularity and made it acceptable to the masses. The dance while portraying the bhava brings out the many tones of the Shrinagar rasa. Devotional songs are used in this item. The themes of Odissi revolve around Lord Krishna. The Ashtapadi of Jayadeva is a very common theme. Odissi centers on spirituality and devotion.

Technique of Odissi
Odissi dancing follows the basic rules of the Natyashastra and the Silpasastra in its techniques. Hip deflection is the characteristic feature of this dance. It has similar foot movements as Bharatnatyam. The essence of Odissi dance lies in its sculpturesque quality. Its beautiful poses resemble the sculptures of the famous temples, which once nourished this art. This dance form lays emphasis on sensitive facial expression. It has vigorous movements that make the dancer emotional, tired and exhausted. This style of dance maintains a perfect balance between physical, mental and spiritual aspects of dance.

Jewellery and Costumes in Odissi
Odissi dance attire has a stitched costume in pyjama style made out of the special Orissa handloom silk sarees, draped in a comfortable style. The sarees have special borders and intricate designs which distinguish them from other sarees. Earlier only the sarees used to be draped around. However over a period of time, the stitched costume has been used due to its convenience.

Odissi dance uses silver jewellery. The dancer wears a choker, a longer necklace, armlets, bracelets, a belt, anklets, bells, earrings, each placed on the bun, and a seenthi which is a piece placed on the hair and forehead. An Odissi dancer has elaborate hair-do in a knot adorned with the “Tahiya” which represents a temple tower. Flower garlands are woven into the hair. Palms and soles are painted with the Alta. They also wear the head ornament called the Mathami. Earlier the headpiece used to be made of real flowers, but now it has been changed to Styrofoam. They also wear the “Kapa” on the ears, “Kankana” on the wrists, armlets called “Bahichudi” or “Tayila” and an elaborate belt. She wears on her ankles bells strung together on a single cord. A “Padaka-tilaka”, a necklace with a locket rests on the chest is also worn.

Music in Odissi
In Odissi, the words used in Drutala (speedy rhymes) are called padis and Navatala`s (nine rhymes) use is also the special feature of Odissi music. Dasatala (ten rhymes) and Egaratala (eleven rhymes) are commonly used. Odissi music is a unique blend of North and South Indian classical music but has its own distinct qualities. Today the orchestra consists of the Guru who mostly is also the pakhawaj player accompanied with one or two vocalists. There are a number of musical instruments that accompany the Odissi dance. One of the most important is the pakhawaj, also known as the mardal. Other instruments are the bansuri, the Manjira, the sitar and the tanpura. Odissi music is a separate system of Indian classical music and has all the essential ingredients of Indian Classical form. The present form is the outcome of the continuous evolution of the earliest Indian classical music. Odissi dance finally assumed the present form of “Ragaksyudra-Geeta-Pravandha-Gana”. This is styled as traditional Odissi music.

Performance by Odissi Dancers
Odissi presents a fine synthesis of Lasya and Tandava aspects of the Indian Classical Dance. The dancer very efficiently changes from one to the other according to the need of the expressional number, rhythmic syllables and abhinaya. The music is a combination of Hindustani and Carnatic classical styles. The performance of Odissi dance recital is tender, vigorous, intensely erotic and devotional.

Indian Odissi Dancers
Today, the dancing style of the state of Orissa is considered as Odissi. Odissi was revived in the late forties and early fifties by Guru Kelucharan Mahapatra, Guru Pankaj Charan Das, Guru Deba Prasad Das and Guru Raghunath Dutta. Most of the present day gurus were Gotipua dancers themselves. Some of the famous Odissi dancers are Madhavi Mudgal, Rekha Tandon, Sreyashi Dey and many more.

source : indianetzone.com

Mohiniattam is a solo female dance (in a single costume), where musical melody and the rhythmical swaying of the dancer from side to side and the smooth and unbroken flow of the body movement is the striking feature. The Mohiniattam dance focuses mainly on feminine moods and emotions. Usually, the theme of Mohiniattam dance is “sringara” or love. Subtle subjects of love are executed with suggestive abhinaya, subtle gestures, rhythmic footwork and lilting music. The legend of Vishnu as “Mohini”, (the enchantress) forms the core of Mohiniattam dance.

The credit for reviving the Mohiniattam dance in the nineteenth century goes to Swati Tirunal. Swati Tirunal was an enlightened ruler of Travancore (Southern Kerala) and promoted the study of Mohiniattam. Swati Tirunal composed many of the musical arrangements and vocal accompaniments that provide musical background for the Mohiniattam dancers. The noted Malayalam poet Vallathol, who established the Kerala Kalamandalam dance school in 1930, also played an important role in reviving the Mohiniattam dance form.

The performers of Mohiniattam dance usually wear an off-white colored sari with gold brocade borders. Hairs of the dancer are gathered in a bun and decorated with jasmine flowers. The Mohiniattam dancer is adorned with Gold Jewellery including necklaces, bangles, waistbands and anklets. The tinkling of the Jewellery produces music as the dancer performs the dance. Mohiniattam dance is accompanied by musical instruments like violin, Veena and Mridangam and the dancer narrates episodes from the epics and legends through elegant steps, rhythmic movements of her arms and amazing facial expressions. The Hastha Lakshandeepika is a classical text and forms the basis of hands and arms movement in Mohiniattam

source : culturalindia.net

Manipuri dance is entirely religious and aims at gaining spiritual experience. The Manipuri dance is not only a medium of worship and delight but also essential for all socio-cultural ceremonies of Manipuri people. Looking from a religious and artistic point of view the Manipuri Classical dance is said to be one on the purest, modest, softest and mildest and meaningful dances.

Manipuri Dance is a common name and envelopes all the dance-forms of Manipur. Thus, Manipuri dance can be called a basket of various dances. According to legends the original creator of Manipuri dance was Radha and Krishna. This Rasa Leela dance is said to be repeated by Shiva and his consort, Goddess Uma in Lasya style (in Manipur). It is interesting to note that the same dance (Rasa-dance) was performed for the third time by two mortal human beings, princess Toibi and Khamba of Manipur. The dance performed by these two lovers is known as Lai Haraoba.

The most important facet of Manipuri culture is that it has preserved the ancient ritual based dances and folk dances along with the later developed classical Manipuri dance style. Of all the classical categories, the ‘Ras Leela’ (a greatly evolved dance drama, choreographed on ‘Vaishnavite Padavalis’) is the utmost expression of artistic genius, devotion and excellence of the Manipuri people.

Kuchipudi, one of the art forms of the South had its origin in Andhra Pradesh. It presents scenes from Hindu Epics and mythological tales through dance-dramas combining music, dance and acting.

The lyrics used in Kuchipudi are usually in Telugu, though Sanskrit verses are also not uncommon. While Kuchipudi, like Bharata Natyam comprises pure dance, mime and histrionics, it is the use of speech as well that distinguishes its presentation as dance drama.

Kuchipudi dance-dramas, each present a particular episode or a series of episodes. A solo recital, on the other hand, typically consists of such items as the ‘Sabdam’, ‘Bhama kalapam’ which is the main item, ‘Padams’ and ‘Tarangams’. In ‘Bhama kalapam’, the dancer has enormous scope for the dramatisation of characters. The main character is Satyabhama, a beautiful but arrogant queen who goes through the process of discovering the path of true love and devotion. In the ‘Tarangam’, the dancer frequently perform a  balancing feat, her feet poised on the edge of a brass plate as she moves around.

Kuchipudi, a representation of a fine combination of Natya, Nritta and Nritya was earlier never a solo affair and required a number of actors. It was presented in the open air on an improvised stage by men and boys who were given a vigorous training in abhinaya, music, dancing and singing. Earlier the female roles were played by boys and young men of comely appearance. The Sutradhar or the director of the stage played the key role. He was the conductor, dancer, singer, musician, comedian, all rolled into one.

The play began with the orchestral music which included Mridanga, Madala and a pair of cymbals, followed by an invocation to a deity and appearance of Ganesha, the elephant headed god to bless the performance. Then came the dancers offering worship to the Flagstaff or Flag of Indra. The Sutradhara then announced the theme of the play, introduced the characters in his sing-song voice and appealed the audience to witness the show with attention. This marked the end of the prelude and the beginning of the play proper.

Each character entered the stage dancing and singing the merits of the character he or she was impersonating, which is known as ‘Daruvus’. The play progressed at a leisurely pace and relaxed tempo punctuated with dances both abstract and expressional. It contained some very complicated items of original footwork such as tracing out an outline of a lion or an elephant with the feet on the floor or dancing with the feet on the edges of a circular brass tray or with a water pot delicately and precariously balanced on the head.

Today Kuchipudi is considerably a different style of dance form than it originally used to be. In most of the cases it is now a solo performance done by female dancers. The Sutradhara has become a phenomenon of the past and the Vachika abhinaya, that is, expressional numbers are sung by the danseuses herself instead by the vocalists in the background on the stage as was the traditional practice. The element of devotion to gods has also been done away with and it has become purely a secular affair with predominance of ‘sringar’ or erotic flavour. Besides the drama component has also been totally reduced. The main expressional number is from Jaideva’s Ashtapadi, the Ramayana, the Puranas, Tirtha Narayana’s Krishna Lila Tarangini or Tyagaraja’s compositions, but now the dancer combines into herself the roles of the singer who sings the ‘daruvu’, the actor who speaks the lines and the dancer who mimes and dances to interpret the text. Elements not indigenous to the dance drama such as sculpture like stances and freezes based on perfect iconographic forms motifs and shapes have also been incorporated into Kuchipudi dance recitals to make it more competitive with other dance forms.

source: webindia123.com

Kathakali is the most well known dance drama from the south Indian state of Kerala.  The word Kathakali literally means “Story-Play”.  It is known for its large, elaborate makeup and costumes.  The elaborate costumes of Kathakali have become the most recognised icon for Kerala.

The themes of the Kathakali are religious in nature.  They typically deal with the Mahabarat, the Ramayana and the ancient scriptures known as the Puranas.  This is performed in a text which is generally Sanskritised Malayalam.

A Kathakali performance is a major social event.  They generally start at dusk and go through out the night.  Kathakali is usually performed only by men.  Female characters are portrayed by men dressed in women’s costume.  However, in recent years, women have started to become Kathakali dancers.

Kathakali has a long tradition.  It dates back to the 17th century.  It was given its present form by Mahakavi Vallathol Narayan Menon, who was the founder of the Kerala Kala Mandalam.

The actors rely very heavily on hand gesture to convey the story.  These hand gestures, known as mudra, are common through out much of classical Indian dance.

Costume

The costume is the most distinctive characteristic of Kathakali.  The makeup is very elaborate and the costumes are very large and heavy.

There are several kinds of costume.  There are: Sathwika (the hero), Kathi (the villain), Minukku (females), and Thatti.  These basic divisions are further subdivided in a way which is very well known to Malayali (Keralite) audiences.  Each character is instantly recognisable by their characteristic makeup and costume.

The makeup is very elaborate.  It is so elaborate that it is more like a mask than makeup in the usual sense.  The materials that comprise the makeup is all locally available.  The white is made from rice flour, the red is made from Vermilion (a red earth such as cinnabar).  The black is made from soot.  The colours are not merely decoration, but are also a means of portraying characters.  For instance, red on the feet is used to symbolise evil character and evil intent.

Music

The music of Kathakali has some similarity to the larger body of South Indian classical music (Carnatic sangeet); however the instrumentation is decidedly different.  Its local colour is strongly achieved by the use of instruments such as chenda, idakka, and shuddha madalam.

Conclusion

Is Kathakali classical?  If we look at our benchmarks to see if it is classical, it only scores modestly.  It is definitely old, but this is one of the least important of the criteria.  It is not necessarily something that upper classes use to define their identity, indeed the opposite is probably true.  Its most glaring deficiency is seen in its inability to transcend its attachments to the Keralite community.  The average Indian (non-Malayali) has only a vague knowledge that it exists, and will live their entire life without ever even seeing a Kathakali performance.  Therefore from a sociological standpoint it is probably more correct to call Kathakali “traditional” instead of classical.

Musical Instruments Used To Accompany Kathakali

• Shuddha Madalam
• Chenda
• Manjira (Thalam)
• Idakka

source : chandrakantha.com

Kathak is the major classical dance form of northern India.  The word kathak means “to tell a story”.  It is derived from the dance dramas of ancient India.  When the patronage shifted from the temples to the royal court, there was a change in the overall emphasis.  The emphasis shifted from the telling of religious stories to one of entertainment.  Today, the story-telling aspect has been downgraded and the dance is primarily an abstract exploration of rhythm and movement.

Kathak was primarily associated with an institution known as the tawaif.  This is a much misunderstood institution of female entertainers, very much like the geisha tradition of Japan.  It was a profession which demanded the highest standards of training, intelligence, and most important, civility.  It is said that it was common for royalty to send their children to the tawaifs for instruction in etiquette.  Unfortunately, when the British consolidated their hold over India during the Victorian era, this great institution was branded as mere prostitution and was outlawed.  This set the artform of kathak into a downward spiral that was not reversed until Independence when there was a reawakening in interest in traditional Indian artforms.

There are three main gharanas, or schools of kathak.  These schools are named according to the geographical area in which they developed.  These are the Jaipur, Lucknow, and the Benares gharanas.  Each has a slight difference in interpretation and repertoire.

source : chandrakantha.com

The other works on India dance are Bharatarmada, Abhinaya Darpan, Malavikagnimitra, Sangita Ratnakara and several others.

The Sangeet Academy of India, the premier body of performing arts in India set up by Government of India recognizes eight classical dance forms:

• Bharatanatyam
• Kathak
• Kathakali
• Kuchipudi
• Manipuri
• Mohiniaattam
• Odissi
• Sattriya

It is important to note that Indian classical dance forms are guided by certain set of codes, rhythm and expressions. Each of these dance forms from the different states of India carry with them the inherent soul and spirit of the state.

Besides these India has a rich heritage of folk dances such as Bhiu, Bhangara, Dhumal, Garba, Jhoomar etc, which are the expressions of the rural populace. These dances are performed on occasions such as harvesting, childbirth, marriages etc. The graceful movements and rhythm of the folk dances are the major attractions for tourists. It should be remembered that our folk theatres have a direct link with the folk dances.

source : mapsofindia.com

During the second millennium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking tribes migrated from the northwest into the subcontinent. As they settled in the middle Ganges River valley, they adapted to antecedent cultures.

The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India’s Golden Age, Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights.

Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems–the prevailing Hindu and Muslim–mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other.

The first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers.

The British expanded their influence from these footholds until, by the 1850s, they controlled most of present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In 1857, a rebellion in north India led by mutinous Indian soldiers caused the British Parliament to transfer all political power from the East India Company to the Crown. Great Britain began administering most of India directly while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers.In the late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in British India with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mohandas K. Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and nonviolent resistance and non-cooperation to achieve independence.

On August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth, with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. Enmity between Hindus and Muslims led the British to partition British India, creating East and West Pakistan, where there were Muslim majorities. India became a republic within the Commonwealth after promulgating its constitution on January 26, 1950.

After independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and then his daughter and grandson, with the exception of two brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s.

Prime Minister Nehru governed India until his death in 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties.

In 1979, Desai’s Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi’s return to power in January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and her son, Rajiv, was chosen by the Congress (I)–for “Indira”–Party to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then Chandra Shekhar.

In the 1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.

On May 27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Tamil extremists from Sri Lanka. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India’s domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based political parties

The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major political corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government lasted less than a year, as the leader of the Congress Party withdrew his support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front coalition.

In November 1997, the Congress Party in India again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament–182–but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests forcing U.S. President Clinton to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.

In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance-a new coalition led by the BJP-gained a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999.

source : indianchild.com